Universal EV Chargers: A Fragmented Charging Ecosystem?

Electric vehicles (EVs) are becoming mainstream worldwide, yet EV owners still face the issue of a fragmented charging ecosystem. The reason? Multiple unstandardized connectors.

Unlike gasoline cars that accept the same fuel nozzle, EVs lack a single “universally compatible charger” that works with every EV model.

Let’s understand this with an example: India’s EV market is dominated by two- and three-wheelers, but there are over 10 different charging connectors used across EV brands.

Globally, EV charging networks employ a patchwork of connector standards. From CCS and CHAdeMO to Tesla’s NACS and China’s GB/T, these connectors make interoperability a serious challenge.

Read this blog to get answers for three key questions:

• What are the major EV charging connector standards, and why isn’t there a universal plug?
• How do compatibility and interoperability challenges arise from this fragmented landscape, globally and in India?
• What efforts are underway to standardize EV charging and move toward a more universal, interoperable ecosystem?

What Are the Major EV Charging Connector Standards, and Why Isn’t There a Universal Plug?

EV charging standards evolved regionally, leading to a patchwork of connector types rather than one universal design.

Different countries and vehicle segments adopted their own plugs for historical, technical, or policy reasons. This resulted in the issue that there is no “one-size-fits-all” EV connector today. Thus, it’s essential to understand the key standards in use around the world. Figure 1 illustrates this regional diversity of EV charging connectors.

Now, let’s briefly understand the major EV charger connector standards and who uses them:

Type 1 (SAE J1772)

Type 1 charger is a five-pin AC charging plug standard in North America and Japan. It supports single-phase AC at up to approx.19 kW. Virtually every American and Japanese EV (except Tesla) has a Type 1 inlet for Level 1 and 2 AC charging. Its limitation is single-phase only and no automatic lock. Older European and Indian cars sometimes had Type 1, but Europe moved to Type 2. Tesla provides adapters so its cars can use type 1 chargers.

Type 2 (IEC 62196-2 “Mennekes”)

Type 2 is a seven-pin AC plug standard in Europe (and adopted in many other regions , including India, for AC charging).

Type 2 handles single- or three-phase AC (up to 22 kW on 3-phase) and features an automatic locking latch. Since 2018, all new European public chargers use Type 2 for AC, and even Tesla in Europe switched to Type 2 design for compatibility. Likewise, India too uses Type 2 for AC charging.

Combined Charging System (CCS)

CCS is a “combo” connector that combines AC and DC pins into one port, allowing both slow AC and fast DC charging through the same inlet. It exists in two variants:

1. CCS1 (Type 1 combo), popular in North America (the upper half comes with Type 1 with two DC pins added below)

2. CCS2 (Type 2 combo), popular in Europe and much of the world (the upper half is for Type 2 two DC pins added below).

CCS has become the most popular DC fast-charging standard globally for cars. The advantage is it requires only one vehicle socket for all charging, unlike older systems that needs a separate port for DC. Europe mandates that every new public fast charger must include at least one CCS connector, and automakers are abandoning incompatible formats in favor of CCS.

India has also mandated CCS2 as the standard for DC fast charging on four-wheelers, aligning with the global trend.

CHAdeMO

CHAdeMo is a dedicated DC fast-charging connector developed in Japan (the name stands for “CHArge de MOve”). It was an early DC standard (released 2010) and can support high power (up to 400 kW in the latest specs). Japan uses CHAdeMO widely for DC charging, but globally CHAdeMO is declining. Only a couple of current car models still use CHAdeMO, and notably Nissan has switched its new EVs from CHAdeMO to CCS in North America.

In Europe, CHAdeMO stations are dwindling as EU policy and automakers move toward CCS.In India, it is only supported by a few older Japanese models and is rarely used today.

Notably, CHAdeMO requires a separate AC port on the car, whereas CCS unifies AC/DC into one port. The CHAdeMO consortium is now working with China on a next-gen ultra-fast connector called “ChaoJi” to support up to 900 kW, which could become a future standard in Asia.

GB/T (China)

China chose its own national standards (Guobiao/T, “GB/T”) for EV charging. China’s GB/T AC connector looks similar to Type 2, but is wired differently (not cross-compatible), supporting up to approx. 7 kW AC single-phase. GB/T DC connector is entirely separate and supports high power, up to approx. 237 kW in its current form, with a future 900 kW via ChaoJi.

Having a single standard helped China build the world’s densest charging network and 60% of the global EV stock. However, GB/T is essentially unique to China, so, EVs exported from Chinamust adapt to CCS or other plugs, and foreign vehicles in China need adapters.

Tesla Proprietary / NACS

Tesla historically used proprietary connectors. In North America, its slim connector supported both AC and DC charging (up to 250+ kW). In 2022, Tesla opened this design as NACS (North American Charging Standard), and by late 2023, major US automakers like Ford and GM announced plans to adopt NACS ports on future EVs.

This marks a significant convergence,the US market may coalesce around NACS alongside legacy CCS1. In Europe, Tesla conforms to local standards (using Type 2 / CCS2), as required by EU regulations. In China and Japan, Tesla provides adapters or modified port (e.g., for China’s GB/T). So while Tesla’s connector unified its own network, only recently has it begun shaping broader industry standard, at least in North America.

Bharat AC/DC (India)

India initially developed the Bharat EV Charger standards (AC001 and DC001) for affordable charging of light vehicles. AC001 is a 3.3 kW AC charger with three 15A sockets, aimed at two-wheelers and auto-rickshaws.

DC001 is a modest DC fast charger up to 15 kW (72–200 V, 120A) for e-rickshaws, three-wheelers, and small cars. It uses a simple India-specific connector.

These standards were a pragmatic early solution, but limited in power. As the market matured, India pivoted to global standards like CCS2 for cars, while continuing to support Bharat DC001 for smaller vehicles. Many public chargers now offer CCS2 for cars plus Bharat DC001 outlets.

Type 6 and Type 7

India’s 2W and 3W charging ecosystem hsa been highly fragmented, but change is underway. In 2023, BIS introduce Type 6 and Type 7 connectors (IS17017 series) as national standards.

1. Type 6 A DC fast-charging connector (up to ~12 kW), is derived from Taiwan’s TES-0D-01-01 and standardized as IEC 62196-6 / IS17017-2-6. It’s backed by the Bharat Charge Alliance and by Ola Electric, Tork Motors, Ultraviolette, Simple Energy, and others have already adopted the Type 6 connector on their models. Its simple design allows easy upgrades and cross-brand compatibility.

2. Type 7:
   Often called the Ather connector (after Ather Energy, who developed it), is a combined AC/DC port for two-wheelers, essentially a smaller analog of CCS. Standardized as IS17017-2-7, it supports AC charging up to ~7.7 kW and DC charging up to ~12 kW through one inlet.

Hero MotoCorp’s Vida V1 scooters have adopted the Type 7 connector so far.

How Do Compatibility and Interoperability Challenges Arise From This Fragmented Landscape, Globally and in India?

The patchwork of charging standards creates significant compatibility challenges for EV owners, charging providers, and manufacturers. Key problems include physical incompatibility, communication issues, and a more complex infrastructure. Here are some of the major challenges:

Inconvenience for EV Owners

If you drive an EV, the charger must match your vehicle’s inlet, and with multiple plug types, that’s not always the case. In the US, Tesla and CCS1 vehicles need adapters to use each other’s chargers.

In Europe, CHAdeMO-equipped cars like Nissan Leafs struggle with CCS-only stations, forcing drivers to carry bulky adapters or hunt for the right charger. As one expert put it: “When you go up to your gas pump, you know it’s going to work with your car. But you don’t have the same experience with your charger.” This uncertainty fuels range anxiety and user frustration.

In India, the problem is especially acute for two-wheelers: an Ola scooter (Type 6) cannot use an Ather charger (Type 7), and vice versa. Most 2W/3W OEMs still rely on proprietary plugs, leaving public fast-charging networks closed to competitors. Riders are often left stranded despite available infrastructure.

Infrastructure Complexity and Cost

Charging service providers (CPOs) must accommodate multiple standards, increasing hardware cost and maintenance. Many public fast-charging stations end up offering multiple cables: e.g., a US station might have CCS1, CHAdeMO and NACS, and an Indian station might need CCS2 for cars plus separate outlets for Bharat DC001, and Type 6/7 for two-wheelers.

Interoperability and Communication Issues

Physical plugs are one aspect; interoperability also requires communication standards between the car and charger. Different fast-charge systems use different communication protocols. CCS uses PLC digital comms via the cable, CHAdeMO uses CAN bus, GB/T has its own protocol. These are not inherently compatible, making it difficult for chargers to serve all vehicles without supporting multiple communication stacks.

Software and Payment Fragmentation: Proprietary networks often require specific apps or RFID cards. In India, efforts like the Unified Energy Interface (UEI) aim to enable roaming and unified payments, but until such systems mature, fragmentation remains a barrier.

Consumer Confidence and EV Adoption

Charger incompatibility continues to slow EV adoption. Surveys show that charging logistics and reliability are top concerns for consumers considering EVs. If potential buyers hear that “you might not find a compatible charger on a trip” or encounter broken, brand-specific infrastructure, they hesitate. A fragmented ecosystem forces EV owners to plan more carefully,checking connector types and station compatibility, which adds friction to the experience.

In India, this challenge is especially common in the two-wheeler segment. The lack of a standard connector initially forced many users to rely only on home charging. While public fast chargers existed, they were often exclusive to specific brands due to proprietary plugs and protocols. This siloed approach has hindered the development of shared, inclusive charging infrastructure.

Thinking of installing
EV chargers?

We can help. We'll visit your site, understand your needs, and suggest the right solution — completely free.

Book My Free Site Visit

What Efforts Are Underway to Standardize EV Charging and Move Toward a More Universal, Interoperable Ecosystem?

With the downsides of fragmentation now evident, global efforts are underway to standardize EV charging and improve interoperability. While a single “USB-C moment” for EVs may still be elusive, consolidation around dominant standards and supportive policy frameworks is encouraging progress.

Consolidation Around Dominant Standards

The industry is gradually converging on fewer connector systems.

1. CCS has effectively won in Europe, mandated by EU law for all new fast chargers, with widespread adoption by automakers like Nissan and Toyota.

2. In the US, a major shift in 2023 saw Tesla’s NACS gain broad support. Ford, GM, Mercedes, Honda, and others are committed to NACS ports, while networks like Electrify America and ChargePoint agreed to add NACS cables. The US is now simplifying to two systems – CCS1 and NACS, – with NACS likely becoming the default.

3. China remains unified under GB/T, with the ChaoJi project aims to merge CHAdeMO and GB/T into a single ultra-fast standard for the region. Japan continues to support. CHAdeMO domestically but export CCS-equipped models.

Policy and Mandates for Interoperability

Governments are pushing standards to fix charger compatibility. In Europe, CCS is mandated for all new fast chargers. India has aligned with global norms by requiring CCS2 for DC and Type 2 for AC, while CHAdeMO is permitted only for legacy use. Policies also encourage multi-standard chargers to ensure no vehicle is stranded. The PM e-drive incentives and the draft battery swapping policy emphasize interoperable solutions across brands.

In the US, federal NEVI funding initially required CCS1 on subsidized chargers, but with NACS gaining traction, regulators are revising rules to mandate open access, likely requiring both CCS and NACS. Some states have even proposed making NACS mandatory to further reduce fragmentation.

Standardization in India’s Light EV Segment

India’s 2W/3W charging ecosystem has been among the most fragmented, but meaningful progress is underway. In 2023, the BIS introduced Type 6 and Type 7 connectors (IS:17017 series) as national standards.

The Bharat Charge Alliance is backing Type 6 as the common DC fast-charge interface for scooters, bikes, and rickshaws, with Ola, Tork, and others already onboard. This would allow a vehicle from one brand to charge on another’s fast charger seamlessly.

Meanwhile, Ather’s Type 7 combined AC/DC port is also standardized, with adoption by Hero MotoCorp’s Vida scooters proving interoperability on Ather’s public chargers. Over time, the 10+ proprietary connectors used by 2W OEMs are expected to consolidate into just these one or two, simplifying public charging deployment.

India’s approach highlights the power of industry collaboration: competitors aligning on open standards that benefit the entire sector, much like the mobile industry’s convergence on USB charging.

Improving the Charging Experience (Beyond Plugs)

Plug and Charge: Achieving a “universal EV charger” goes beyond hardware; it requires a seamless user experience. A key step is ISO 15118 / Plug & Charge, which lets EVs and chargers to authenticate and initiate charging automatically, without apps or cards. Supported by many new EVs and CCS/Tesla chargers, it works across connector types using cryptographic certificates.

OCPP and UEI: On the network side, Open Charge Point Protocol (OCPP) enables chargers and backends from different vendors to communicate. In India, a Unified Energy Interface (UEI) is being rolled out to let drivers locate and pay for any charger through a single interface. Together, these advances tackle the software side of interoperability, making today’s patchwork of networks feel more universal to users.

Final Thoughts

The world may never settle on a single EV connector, but the clutter is giving way to clarity. Within a few years, two or three standards will dominate, CCS, China’s GB/T/ChaoJi, and NACS in North America,supported by adapters and harmonized protocols. Initiatives like the Megawatt Charging System show that global cooperation is possible from the start.

The lesson is simple: interoperability unlocks adoption. As automakers, governments, and networks align, charging will shed its complexity and become as effortless as refueling, only cleaner, smarter, and universal.